Covenant vs Contract
A contract is an exchange of services, whereas a covenant is an exchange of persons. And whereas a contract can be broken, a valid covenant is indissoluble. The solemn importance of covenants in the Pentateuch (first five books of the Bible) and beyond is also seen in God's swearing sacred oaths in binding himself to his people. And whereas mere humans can and have strayed throughout salvation history, God will not. That is, God ensures that his covenants will be fulfilled, even when his people transgress seriously, such as through idolatry.
The Covenants of the Old Testament
1. The Adamic Covenant – Genesis 2–3
God created Adam and Eve in His image and placed them in the Garden of Eden to live in harmony with Him. Their role was to care for creation and obey the command not to eat from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. When they disobeyed, sin entered the world, but God still promised hope:
- "I will put enmity between you and the woman, and between your offspring and hers; he will strike your head, and you will strike his heel." (Genesis 3:15)
This first promise foreshadows the coming of a Savior.
2. The Noahide Covenant – Genesis 9:8–17
After the flood, God said to Noah:
- "I am now establishing my covenant with you and your descendants after you." (Genesis 9:9)
God promised never again to destroy all life by flood and set the rainbow as a sign of His lasting promise. This universal covenant calls all humanity to respect life and live with justice before God.
3. The Abrahamic Covenants – Genesis 12:1–3; 15:1–6; 17:1–14; 22:16–18
God called Abram, saying:
- "Go from your country... to the land that I will show you. I will make of you a great nation, and I will bless you." (Genesis 12:1–2)
God later promised descendants as numerous as the stars and the land of Canaan. In Genesis 17, God changes Abram's name to Abraham and establishes circumcision as the sign. God promises that Abraham's descendants will be a great nation (fulfilled by Moses in Israel), a great Kingdom (fulfilled by David) and be a blessing to all nations (fulfilled by Christ).
4. The Covenant with Jacob (Israel) – Genesis 28:10–15
God renews His promise with Abraham's grandson, Jacob. In a dream at Bethel, God says:
- "The land on which you lie I will give to you and to your offspring... and all the families of the earth shall be blessed in you and in your offspring." (Genesis 28:13–14)
God reaffirms His faithfulness through the generations, showing that His plan of salvation continues through Jacob, who is renamed Israel.
5. The Mosaic Covenant – Exodus 19–24
At Mount Sinai, God said to Moses and Israel:
- "If you obey my voice and keep my covenant, you shall be my treasured possession out of all the peoples." (Exodus 19:5)
Through Moses, the Law—including the Ten Commandments—forms Israel as God's chosen people, called to holiness and obedience. The Mosaic covenant has 613 commandments which the Jewish people must fulfill in order to receive the benefit of the covenant.
6. The Covenant with David – 2 Samuel 7:8–16
God promises David a lasting dynasty:
- "Your house and your kingdom shall be made sure forever before me; your throne shall be established forever." (2 Samuel 7:16)
This covenant foreshadows the coming of the Messiah—Jesus Christ, son of David—whose kingdom will have no end. This covenant did not task the Jewish people or Gentiles with any new commandments to fulfill.
Summary of the Old Testament Covenants
| Covenant | Covenant Partner | Key Promise | Scripture |
|---|---|---|---|
| Adamic | All humanity | Life and hope after sin | Genesis 2–3 |
| Noahide | Noah and all creation | No more destruction by flood | Genesis 9:8–17 |
| Abrahamic | Abraham and descendants | Land, nation, blessing | Genesis 12; 15; 17; 22 |
| Jacob/Israel | Jacob and descendants | Renewal of Abrahamic promises | Genesis 28:10–15 |
| Mosaic | Israel through Moses | Law and holiness | Exodus 19–24 |
| Davidic | King David | Everlasting kingdom | 2 Samuel 7 |
Salvation History & The Old Testament
God's plan of salvation can be read in Scripture starting with Creation in the book of Genesis and culminating with the coming of Christ and his Church in the New Testament. Because the Bible is a library of books, its arrangement is by category rather than chronology and is best studied with the help of the Church.
There are 12 stages of salvation history, culminating with Christ and the creation of the Church. This linear story of salvation can be read in just 14 books:
- The Early World (Gen 1–11)
- The Patriarchs (Gen 12–50)
- Egypt & Exodus (Exodus)
- Desert Wanderings (Numbers)
- Conquest & Judges (Joshua, Judges, 1 Samuel 1–8)
- Royal Kingdom (1 Sam 9–31, 2 Sam, 1 Kings 1–11)
- Divided Kingdom (1 Kings 12–22, 2 Kings 1–17)
- Exile (2 Kings 18–25)
- Return (Ezra, Nehemiah)
- Maccabean Revolt (1 Maccabees)
- Messianic Fulfillment (Luke)
- The Church (Acts)
1. The Early World
God creates the world, including human beings as the crown of creation. Adam and Eve dwell in harmony with one another and in communion with God, but their disobedience leads to the Fall. Then we learn about Cain & Abel and the first murder. God floods the world and makes a covenant with Noah. From his son Shem, we get the term for semitic peoples. This period ends with the Tower of Babel story.
2. The Patriarchs
God begins forming covenants/relationships with His chosen people. Beginning with Abraham, the father of nations. He is a descendant of Eber (Hebrew), Noah's great grandson. Abraham is promised Land, a Kingdom and Worldwide blessing through his lineage (Gen 12:1–3). These are fulfilled in Moses, David and Jesus Christ. The Patriarchs continue with Isaac & Jacob. Jacob is renamed Israel; his 12 sons' names became the names of the 12 tribes of Israel.
- Of note are Judah and Joseph
3. Egypt & Exodus
We learn in Exodus that Jacob's descendants are called Israelites and are in slavery in Egypt. Key events are the exodus from Egypt, the giving of the Law (Moses & The 10 Commandments), covenant (Mount Sinai), and the building of the tabernacle. The covenant with Abraham extends to all Israelites, his Chosen People.
- In Exodus: Prefiguring of Baptism and the Eucharist
4. Desert Wanderings
Because of their disobedience, the Israelites are made to wander the desert. A whole generation (40 years) will pass before they see the Promised Land.
- Censuses at beginning and end – Numbers. Of the Exodus generation – two do not complain but speak out with faith in the Lord: Joshua and Caleb
5. Conquest & Judges
Joshua leads the Israelites to the Promised land and defeats Israel's enemies in Canaan. They have no earthly king as God is their king. They have Judges to help with leadership and defending the land. The people fall into a continual pattern of sin, which leads to enemy oppression, at which point they cry out for help. God then sends a deliverer ("a judge"). It is a recurring cycle of sin, servitude, supplication, salvation, and forgetfulness. More well known are the judges Samson, Deborah, Gideon.
6. Royal Kingdom
Israel demands a king like its neighboring nations and God relents. Samuel, the last Judge, warns them against this. We learn of the kings Saul, David and Solomon. David is the great warrior who unites the 12 tribes and is promised that the Messiah will come from his lineage. The wise Solomon builds the temple in Jerusalem.
- Hannah conceives a child, Samuel, who will be both the last of the judges and the prophet who anoints the first two kings of Israel, Saul and David.
- God alone is the true King of Israel; they are rejecting Him as being king over them. In prefiguring the kingdom of God, the nations surrounding Israel are introduced to the God of Israel.
7. Divided Kingdom
After Solomon's death the kingdom divides. The northern Kingdom is called Israel; the southern Kingdom is called Judah. Jerusalem and the temple are in Judah. Israel is sometimes called Samaria after its capital and Ephraim after its largest tribe. Some kings are good, many are not. Israel to the north especially strays in their worship not having access to the Temple.
The Assyrians conquered the North in 721 BC and brought in 5 other nations and moved many Israelites to other areas in their kingdom. Babylon conquers Judah in 586 BC and destroys the Temple. Judah is now exiled to Babylon.
- Elijah & Elisha are bright spots in this period. Solomon had defied the prohibitions of kings when he amassed horses, wives, & wealth – which became negative influences and led to worship of pagan idols.
- Of special note is the citing the mothers of the Kings of Judah, to indicate who the Queen is.
8. Exile
Judah, now referred to for the first time as Jews, are exiled for 70 years in Babylon. The Persians conquered the Babylonians and Cyrus the Persian king allowed the Jews to return to Jerusalem.
9. Return
The Jews returned in 2 major waves and began to rebuild the temple, led by Zerubbabel, a descendant of David. The period is one of rebuilding the Temple, the walls of Jerusalem, and a renewed reverence for God's Law. Overseeing these aspects are three key individuals who lead the way in the return efforts – Zerubbabel (the Temple), Nehemiah (the walls), and Ezra (the Torah).
10. Maccabean Revolt
Around 336 BC Alexander the Great conquers the near and middle East and establishes Greece as the new power. He intends to destroy Jerusalem or make it submit to "Hellenization" but is impressed by what he sees. He died suddenly in 332 BC, his empire divided by 4 generals and their factions. Hellenization was forced on the Jews; the Maccabees revolted, won, and purified the temple.
- This victory is commemorated by Hanukkah or the Feast of Lights. (Herodian rule begins in 37 BC)
- The Maccabees ally with the rising power of Rome, to push back against the Seleucid Greeks.
- Sadducees – priestly class sympathetic to Greece & Rome; Pharisees – inspired by Maccabees; Zealots – later & wanted to fight Rome; Essenes – moved away to Qumran because the temple was defiled.
- *EABPGR – the kingdoms that conquer the Israelites & Jews. (Eat a big purple grape).
Prophets of the Northern and Southern Kingdoms (870–424 BC)
| Prophet | Date BC | Pre-/Post-Exile | Audience |
|---|---|---|---|
| Elijah (1 & 2 Kings) | 870–845 | Pre-Exile | Israel |
| Elisha (1 & 2 Kings) | 845–795 | Pre-Exile | Israel |
| Jonah | 800–753 | Pre-Exile | Assyria |
| Amos | 760–753 | Pre-Exile | Israel |
| Hosea | 750–715 | Pre-Exile | Israel |
| Isaiah | 740–680 | Pre-Exile | Judah |
| Micah | 735–700 | Pre-Exile | Judah |
| Joel | 722–701 | Pre-Exile | Judah |
| Nahum | 664–654 | Pre-Exile | Assyria |
| Zephaniah | 632–628 | Pre-Exile | Judah |
| Jeremiah | 632–628 | Pre-Exile | Judah |
| Habakkuk | 610–605 | Pre-Exile | Judah |
| Daniel | 605–535 | Exile | Exiles |
| Ezekiel | 590–571 | Exile | Exiles |
| Obadiah | 586 | Exile | Edom |
| Zechariah | 520–480 | Post-Exile | Judah |
| Haggai | 520 | Post-Exile | Judah |
| Malachi | 432–424 | Post-Exile | Judah |
Concurrent Books
| Stage | Concurrent Books |
|---|---|
| 1. The Early World | |
| 2. The Patriarchs | Job |
| 3. Egypt & Exodus | Leviticus |
| 4. Desert Wanderings | Deuteronomy |
| 5. Conquest & Judges | Ruth |
| 6. Royal Kingdom | 1 & 2 Chronicles, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon |
| 7. Divided Kingdom | Amos, Jonah, Hosea, Isaiah, Micah |
| 8. Exile | Tobit, Joel, Nahum, Zephaniah, Jeremiah, Habakkuk, Baruch, Daniel, Ezekiel, Judith, Lamentations, Obadiah |
| 9. Return | Zechariah, Haggai, Esther, Malachi |
| 10. Maccabean Revolt | 2 Maccabees, Wisdom, Sirach |
| 11. Messianic Fulfillment | Matthew, Mark, John |
| 12. The Church | Paul's letters, Hebrews, Catholic letters, Revelation |